emphasized, the judgment of impartial
civilians appointed by the President, another civilian.[15-43]

[Footnote 15-43: Ibid., pp. 8973, 9073.]

Discussion of the Russell amendment continued with opponents and
defenders raising the issues of military efficiency, legality, and
principles of equality and states' rights. In the end the amendment
was defeated 45 to 27 with 24 not voting, a close vote if one
considers that the abstentions could have changed the outcome.[15-44]
A similar amendment, this time introduced by Congressman Arthur
Winstead of Mississippi, was also defeated in 1951.

[Footnote 15-44: Ibid., p. 9074; see also Memo, Rear
Adm H. A. Houser, OSD Legis Liaison, for ASD
Rosenberg, 17 Mar 51, sub: Winstead
Anti-nonsegregation Amendment, SD 291.2.]

The Russell amendment was the high point of the congressional fight
against armed forces integration. During the next year the
integrationists took their turn, their barrage of questions and
demands aimed at obtaining from the Secretary of Defense additional
reforms in the services. On balance, these congressmen were no more
effective than the segregationists. Secretary Johnson had obviously
adopted a hands-off policy on integration.[15-45] Certainly he openly
discouraged further public and congressional investigations of the
department's racial practices. When the Committee Against Jim Crow
sought to investigate racial conditions in the Seventh Army in
December 1949, Johnson told A. Philip Randolph and Grant Reynolds that
he could not provide them with military transport, and he closed the
discussion by referring the civil rights leaders to the Army's new
special regulation on equal opportunity published in January
1950.[15-46]

[Footnote 15-45: See Ltrs, Rep. Kenneth B. Keating to
Johnson, 19 Dec 49; SecDef to Keating, 20 Jan 50;
idem to Hubert H. Humphrey, 24 Mar 50; Humphrey to
SecDef, 28 Feb 50; Rep. Jacob Javits to Johnson, 22
Dec 49; Draft Ltr, SecDef to Javits, 16 Jan 50 (not
sent); Memos, Leva for Johnson, 12 and 17 Jan 50.
All in SD 291.2 Negroes.]

[Footnote 15-46: Ltrs, Johnson to Reynolds, 23 Dec 49;
Reynolds to Johnson, 13 Jan 50; Reynolds and
Randolph to Johnson,