x emplois et offices publics.

* * * * *

Incidentally the legal effect of this stipulation was to emancipate the
Dutch Jews, though, as a matter of fact, the few disabilities under
which they laboured did not immediately disappear. The Protocol was
afterwards ratified by the Congress of Vienna and added to the Final Act
as part of the Tenth Annexe,[3] though in other respects the Congress
did not evince a very generous conception of Religious Liberty.

The conquest of religious liberty for Christians in heathen lands was a
more convincing object lesson than the Peace of Westphalia. It was
difficult for one Christian Church to acknowledge its equality with
another Christian Church and to tolerate heresy, but it was far more
distasteful to have to come to terms with the heathen and to accept
toleration at his hands.

This was not altogether an altruistic form of political action. It was
in some of its aspects part of the elementary duty of every State to
protect its nationals in foreign countries.

The earliest instances of this action we find in China, where, in the
thirteenth century, the Papacy concluded Treaties with the Mongol
Emperors for the protection of Christian Missions.[4] It was not,
however, until the Treaty of Tientsin in 1858 that Great Britain and
France secured religious liberty for Christians in China.

In the Mussulman Levant, toleration for foreign Christians was secured
by the so-called Capitulations. These were, in effect, treaties,
although they were in the form of grants by the Sultans. They gave large
exterritorial jurisdiction to the Ambassadors and Consuls of the States
on whom they were conferred. The earliest grant of this kind occurs in
the ninth century, when the Emperor Charlemagne obtained guarantees for
his subjects visiting the Levant from the famous Khalif Haroun
al-Rashid.[5] Later on, all the leading Christian States negotiated
Capitulations with the Sultans. The existing British Capitulations are
dated 1675, but an earlier grant was made in 1583.

One of the main objects of the Capitulations, besides personal security
and trading rights, was to assure religious liberty for the nationals
of the grantees. This benefited Jews at an early date, as the
Capitulations and similar treaties generally provided for certain
immunities for the native interpreters, servants and other employees of
the privileged foreigners. As Jews were frequently so employed