he ground of absence of treaty rights, but, as a
matter of fact, this argument, too, has not been consistently adhered
to.[9] In all cases, whether of great or small States, treaty rights or
no treaty rights, the real test has almost always been the frigid
_raison d'etat_. The United States has been less affected by this
restriction than the European Powers, and on many occasions has shown a
really noble example of the purest altruism in international
politics.[10]

II. INTERVENTIONS ON GROUNDS OF HUMANITY.

Long before the Peace of Westphalia an attempt was made by the famous
Jewess, Donna Gracia Nasi, to obtain protection for her persecuted
co-religionists by diplomatic action, and it proved successful. The
circumstances will be narrated presently.[11] It stood, however, alone
for two hundred years. Even after the Peace eminent Jews, who sought in
a like way to enlist the sympathy and help of European governments,
failed. Menasseh ben Israel made representations in this sense on behalf
of the oppressed Jews of Poland, Prussia, Spain, and Portugal to both
Queen Christina of Sweden and Oliver Cromwell, but although he met with
much and genuine sympathy he found the _raison d'etat_--and probably
also a lingering reluctance to regard Jews as quite within the pale of
humanity--too strong for him.[12] A decade later a similar attempt was
made by Fernando Mendes da Costa, one of the founders of the
Anglo-Jewish Community, and a member of a very distinguished Portuguese
Marrano family. From a letter of his which is still extant,[13] it seems
that he was deeply concerned in helping the persecuted Marranos in Spain
and Portugal, and he had a scheme for organising an emigration of his
hapless brethren on a large scale to Italy and England. He received much
help from Don Francisco Manuel de Mello, the distinguished Portuguese
soldier, author and diplomatist, and through him interested Queen
Katharine of Braganza and Charles II in the scheme. It appears, too,
that, with the support of these eminent personages, the scheme was
brought to the notice of the Pope, but of its subsequent fate we know
nothing.

(_a_) PERSECUTION OF THE JEWS IN BOHEMIA (1744-45).

The earliest actual intervention of a Great Power on behalf of the Jews
on humanitarian grounds took place in 1744-45, when Great Britain and
Holland made strong and successful representations to the Government of
the Empress Maria Theresa for the protection of the