philosophy will not be
restricted to logical criticism, but will have a cognitive field of its
own. The great majority of philosophers have assumed the latter of these
alternatives to be true, while most aggressive scientists have intended
the former in their somewhat blind attacks upon "metaphysics." Although
the selection of either of these alternatives involves us in the defence
of a specific answer to a philosophical question, the issue is
inevitable in any introduction to philosophy because of its bearing upon
the extent of the field of that study. Furthermore there can be no
better exposition of the meaning of philosophy of science than an
illustration of its exercise. The following, then, is to be regarded as
on the one hand a tentative refutation of _positivism_, or the _claim of
natural science to be coextensive with knowable reality_; and on the
other hand a programme for the procedure of philosophy with reference
to natural science.

[Sidenote: The Origin of the Scientific Interest.]

Sect. 42. Science issues through imperceptible stages from organic
habits and instincts which signify the possession by living creatures of
a power to meet the environment on its own terms. Every organism
possesses such a working knowledge of nature, and among men the first
science consists in those habitual adjustments common to men and
infra-human organisms. Man is already practising science before he
recognizes it. As _skill_ it distinguishes itself early in his history
from lore, or untested tradition. Skill is familiarity with general
kinds of events, together with ability to identify an individual with
reference to a kind, and so be prepared for the outcome. Thus man is
inwardly prepared for the alternation of day and night, and the periods
of the seasons. He practically anticipates the procession of natural
events in the countless emergencies of his daily life. But science in
the stricter sense begins when skill becomes _free_ and _social_.

[Sidenote: Skill as Free.]

Sect. 43. Skill may be said to be _free_ when the essential terms of the
action have been abstracted from the circumstances attending them in
individual experiences, and are retained as ideal plans applicable to
any practical occasion. The monkey who swings with a trapeze from his
perch on the side of the cage, counts upon swinging back again without
any further effort on his own part. His act and its successful issue
signify his practical familiarity