of
respects more liberal than that which had prevailed during the
dominance of Napoleon. At the head of the state stood the king,
inviolable in person, in whose hands were gathered the powers of
issuing ordinances, making appointments, declaring war, concluding
treaties, commanding the armies, and initiating all measures of
legislation. But there was established a bicameral legislature, by
which the king's ministers might be impeached, and without whose
assent no law might be enacted and no tax levied. The upper house, or
Chamber of Peers, was composed of a variable number of members named
by the crown in heredity or for life.[432] The lower, or Chamber (p. 296)
of Deputies, consisted of representatives elected in the departments
for a term of five years, one-fifth retiring annually.[433] Provision
was made for the annual assembling of the chambers; and although the
proposing of laws was vested exclusively in the crown, it was
stipulated that either house might petition the king to introduce a
measure relating to any specific subject. The Charter contained a
comprehensive enumeration and guarantee of the civil rights of French
citizens.[434]

[Footnote 432: By law of December 29, 1831, it was
stipulated that only life peers might thereafter be
appointed, and the king was required to take all
appointees from a prescribed list of dignitaries.
Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 231-232.]

[Footnote 433: A law of June 9, 1824, stipulated
that thereafter the Chamber of Deputies should be
elected integrally for a period of seven years.
Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 211.]

[Footnote 434: The text of the Charter of 1814 may
be found in Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions,
I., 183-190; Helie, Les Constitutions, 884-890;
and, in English translation, in Anderson,
Constitutions, 457-465, and University of
Pennsylvania Translations and Reprints, I., No. 3.
Summary in Block, Dictionnaire General, I.,
506-508. Cambridge Modern History, IX., Chap. 18.]

*319. The Electoral System.*--The Charter prescribed the
qualifications required of voters and of deputies, but did not define
the manner in which d