arties, I., Chap. 2; Bodley,
France, Book IV., Chaps. 1-8; and C. Seignobos, The
Political Parties of France, in _International
Monthly_, Aug., 1901. The last-mentioned is brief,
but excellent. A valuable work is P. Laffitte, Le
suffrage universel et la regime parlementaire (2d
ed., Paris, 1889). Among useful articles may be
mentioned: J. Meline, Les partis dans la
republique, in _Revue Politique et Parlementaire_,
Jan., 1900; M. H. Doniol, Les idees politiques et
les partis en France durant le XIXe siecle, in
_Revue du Droit Public_, May-June, 1902; and A.
Charpentier, Radicaux et socialistes de 1902 a
1912, in _La Nouvelle Revue_, May 1, 1912. On
socialism in France see J. Peixotto, The French
Revolution and Modern French Socialism (New York,
1901); R. T. Ely, French and German Socialism in
Modern Times (New York, 1883); P. Louis, Histoire
du socialisme francais (Paris, 1901); E. Villey,
Les perils de la democratie francaise (Paris,
1910); and A. Fouillee, La democratie politique et
sociale en France (Paris, 1910).]

CHAPTER XVIII (p. 335)

JUSTICE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT

I. FRENCH LAW

The law of France is of highly composite origin. Its sources lie far
back in the Roman law, the canon law, and the Germanic law of the
Middle Ages. As late as 1789 there had been no attempt at a complete
codification of it. Under the operation of a succession of royal
ordinances, criminal law, civil and criminal procedure, and commercial
law, it is true, had been reduced by the opening of the Revolution to
a reasonable measure of uniformity. The civil law existed still,
however, in the form of "customs" (_coutumiers_), which varied widely
from province to province. A code of civil law which should be
established uniformly throughout the realm was very generally demanded
in the cahiers of 1789, and such a code was specifically promised in
the constitution of 1791.

*364. The Code Napoleon.*--Toward the work of codification some
beginnings were made by the first two Revolutionary as