great achievement was the separation of church and state,
accomplished through the means of the Law of Associations of July 1,
1901, the abrogation of the Concordat, December 9, 1905, and the law
of January 2, 1907, restricting further the privileges of the Roman
Catholic Church in France. A socialist now appeared for the first time
in the cabinet. At the elections of April, 1902, the policies of the
Government were vindicated by the return of 321 avowed "ministerialists"
and of but 268 representatives of the opposition.

*360. The Elections of 1906.*--June 3, 1902, the longest-lived ministry
since the Third Republic was established was brought to an end by the
voluntary retirement of Waldeck-Rousseau. The new premier, Combes, was
a member of the Radical party, and the anti-clerical, radical policies
of the preceding government were maintained throughout the ensuing two
and a half years, as also they were during the premiership of Rouvier
(1905-1906). In March, 1906, a new ministry, in which Clemenceau was
actual chief, was formed with the Radical Sarrien as premier, and at
the elections which came two months later the groups of the Left won
another signal victory. Prior to the balloting the majority in support
of the radical policy of the Government _bloc_ could muster in the
Chamber some 340 votes; afterwards, it could muster at least 400. The
Right retained its numerical strength (about 130), but the extreme
Left made decided gains at the expense of the moderates, or
Progressives. The number of Progressive seats, 120 prior to the
election, was reduced by half; while the aggregate of Socialist and
Radical-Socialist seats rose to 230. On all sides Moderate
Republicanism fell before the assaults of Socialism. At the same time
it was demonstrated unmistakably that the anti-clerical measures of
the recent governments were in substantial accord with the will (p. 332)
of the nation. October 25, 1906, Clemenceau assumed the premiership.

*361. The Elections of 1910.*--The Clemenceau ministry, which survived
until July, 1909, adopted a programme which was more frankly
socialistic than was that of any of its predecessors. It added to the
system of state-owned railways the Great Western Line; it inaugurated
a graduated income tax and put the measure in the way of enactment at
the hand of the Chamber; it carried fresh and more rigorous
legislation in hostility to clericalism; and, in general, it gave free
expression to the