increasingly serious, the President,
Capo d'Istria, attempted restrictive measures which were violently
resented. His opponents burned the Greek fleet at Hydra to prevent it
falling into his hands. On October 9 Capo d'Istria was assassinated; his
brother succeeded him and headed the government for a short time.

To suppress the Polish rebellion, Russia sent an army of one hundred and
twenty thousand men into Poland, under Diebitsch. A bloody but indecisive
campaign followed. The Russians were defeated in several battles, but
Polish expeditions into Lithuania and Volhynia failed completely; and
cholera, which had spread from India, devastated both armies, General
Diebitsch being among the first to die. The Polish struggle for
independence, however, was a hopeless one. The Russians received
assistance from Prussia and Austria, while the Poles ruined their cause by
their internal dissensions. On September 7 Paskievitch, who had succeeded
Diebitsch, took Warsaw, and the rebellion was crushed. The Polish language
was forbidden in the schools, and all who had taken part in the rising
were ruthlessly punished.

In Italy, a revolt of Modena and Bologna against Papal rule was put down
by Austria, Metternich insisting on extirpating all attempts at reform;
but France, which had approved Austrian intervention, compelled both the
Papal States and Austria to grant a few concessions to the people. The
disputed status of Belgium was settled by a conference in London, the
country being separated from Holland and established as a kingdom, with
Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg as king. Luxembourg was claimed by both
Holland and Belgium, and a Dutch army advanced to support the pretensions
of the former. France thereupon sent an expedition into Belgium to defend
her neighbor and protege; but the other powers compelled both forces to
withdraw, the question of Luxembourg being left for future settlement.

The rulers of the German states sought to stamp out liberalism, and there
began a heavy emigration, many of the emigrants coming to America. Riots
in England because the House of Lords rejected a bill to reform the
election system, which the Commons had passed; the houses of several of
the opponents of reform were burned. Trade in England unsettled, and
cholera was added to destitution.

In the United States, general prosperity prevailed, and there was a heavy
westward migration. The Black Hawk War was fought to suppress a rebellion
of the