re of Spenser, Bacon, and Shakespeare at the same
epoch. France, earlier than England, felt Renaissance influences, and
for some while seemed upon the point of joining the Reformation. But
while the French were hesitating, Spain proclaimed herself the
uncompromising enemy of Protestantism, and Rome, supported by this
powerful ally, dragged Italy into the Catholic reaction. That effort
aimed at galvanizing a decrepit Church into the semblance of vital
energy, and, while professing the reformation of its corrupt system,
stereotyped all that was antagonistic in its creed and customs to the
spirit of the modern world. The Catholic Revival necessitated vigorous
reaction, not only against Protestantism, but also against the
Liberalism of the Renaissance and the political liberties of peoples. It
triumphed throughout Southern Europe chiefly because France chose at
length the Catholic side. But the triumph was only partial, condemning
Spain and Italy indeed to intellectual barrenness for a season, but not
sufficing to dominate and suppress the development of rationalism. The
pioneer's work of Italy was over. She joined the ranks of obscurantists
and obstructives. Germany, having failed to accomplish the Reformation
in time, was distracted by the Catholic reaction, which plunged her
into a series of disastrous wars. It remained for England and Holland,
not, however, without similar perturbations in both countries, to lead
the van of progress through two centuries; after which this foremost
post was assigned to France and the United States.

IV.

The views which I have maintained throughout my work upon the
Renaissance will be found, I think, to be coherent. They have received
such varied illustrations that it is difficult to recapitulate the
principles on which they rest, without repetition. The main outline of
the argument, however, is as follows. During the middle ages, Western
Christendom recognized, in theory at least, the ideal of European unity
under the dual headship of the Papacy and Empire. There was one civil
order and one Church. Emperor and Pope, though frequently at strife,
were supposed to support each other for the common welfare of
Christendom. That mediaeval conception has now, in the centuries which
we call modern, passed into oblivion; and the period in which it ceased
to have effective value we denote as the period of the Renaissance and
the Reformation. So long as the ideal held good, it was possible for