nd the benefit being
granted, they would account for his deed. It is an argument from
cause, used not as a proof, but to establish a probability. It makes
the proposition ready for proof.

Arguments from Sign.

The second class of arguments, arguments from sign, is most often used
for proof. If two facts or conditions always occur together, the
presence of one is a sign of the presence of the other. Cause and
effect are so related that if either be observed, it is an indication
of the other. No cause acts without a consequent effect; an effect is
a sure sign of a preceding cause. Supposing one should say, "Because
the flowers are dead, there was a frost," or "If ice has formed on the
river, it must have been cold," in both instances the argument would
be an argument from sign. Both also proceed from the effect to the
cause. Only a low temperature forms ice on the river; the argument
from effect to cause is conclusive. In the first case, the argument is
not conclusive, because flowers may die from other causes. In a case
like this, it is necessary to find all possible causes, and then by
testing each in succession to determine which could not have acted and
leave the one that is the only actual cause. A man is found dead;
death has resulted from natural causes, from murder, or from suicide.
Each possible cause would be tested; and by elimination of the other
possible causes the one right cause would be left. This method of
elimination is frequently employed in arguments from effect to cause.
When this method is used the alternatives should be few, else it gives
rise to confusion and to lack of attention caused by the tediousness
of the discussion. And an enumeration of all possible causes must be
made; for if one be omitted it may be the one that is in fact the
right one.

The relation between cause and effect is so intimate that the
occurrence of one may be regarded as a sure sign of the presence of
the other. If an effect is produced by only one cause, the presence of
the effect is a certain indication of the cause. If several causes
produce the same effect, some other methods must be used to determine
the cause operating in this special case.

Sequence and Cause.

In reasoning from effect to cause, one must be sure that he is dealing
with a cause. As effect follows cause, there is danger that anything
that follows another may be considered as caused by it. Because a man
died just after eating, it would not