uman affairs, examples seldom prove anything; for
under similar conditions one person may not act like another. Though
this be true, the argument from example is one of the most
effective--it is not at all conclusive--in that class of cases where
oratory is combined with argument to convince and persuade. This is
because men learn most readily from examples. To reason about matters
of conduct on abstract principles of morality convinces but few; to
point to a Lincoln or a Franklin has persuaded thousands. Examples are
of most use in enforcing and illustrating and strengthening a point
already established, and they generally follow arguments from sign.

Refutation.

One other class of arguments finds a place in debate: namely, indirect
arguments. It is often as much an advantage to a debater to dispose of
objections as it is to establish his own case. This is because a
question usually has two alternatives. If one can refute the arguments
in favor of the opponent's position, he has by that very process
established his own. If the points of the refutation are of minor
importance and are related to any division of his own direct argument,
the refutation of such points should be taken up in connection with
the related parts of the direct argument. If, however, it is an
argument of some weight and should be considered separate and apart
from the direct argument, it is generally wisest to proceed to its
demolition at the end of the direct argument and before the conclusion
of the whole. For then the whole weight of the direct argument will be
thrown into the refutation and will render every word so much the more
destructive. Again, if the opposing argument be very strong and have
taken complete possession of the audience, it must be attacked and
disposed of at the very beginning. Otherwise it is impossible for the
direct argument to make any advance.

From these suggestions one derives the general principle that each
case must be considered by itself. There will be cases of conflict
among the rules, and there must be a careful weighing of methods.
Common sense and patient labor are the most valuable assistants in
arranging a powerful argument.

It hardly needs to be said that the suggestions made in the chapter on
Exposition regarding Mass and Coherence should be observed here. In
argument as in exposition, topics are emphasized by position, and by
proportion in the scale of treatment. Here as there, matters that are
c