l never plays more than a very limited
part in our happiness and success, but, among the pronunciamentos and in
the anarchy of the third century, blind chance seemed to play with the life
of every one according to its fancy, and it can easily be understood that
the ephemeral rulers of that period, like the masses, saw in chance the
sovereign disposer of their fates.[45]

The power of this fatalist conception during antiquity may be measured by
its long persistence, at least in the Orient, where it originated. Starting
from Babylonia,[46] it spread over the entire Hellenic world, as early as
the Alexandrian period, and towards the end of paganism a considerable part
of the efforts of the Christian apologists was directed against it.[47] But
it was destined to outlast all attacks, and to impose itself even on
Islam.[48] In Latin Europe, in spite of the anathemas of the church, the
belief remained confusedly {180} alive all through the Middle Ages that on
this earth everything happens somewhat

"Per ovra delle rote magne,
Che drizzan ciascun seme ad alcun fine
Secondo che le stella son campagne."[49]

The weapons used by the ecclesiastic writers in contending against this
sidereal fatalism were taken from the arsenal of the old Greek dialectics.
In general, they were those that all defenders of free will had used for
centuries: determinism destroys responsibility; rewards and punishments are
absurd if man acts under a necessity that compels him, if he is born a hero
or a criminal. We shall not dwell on these metaphysical discussions,[50]
but there is one argument that is more closely connected with our subject,
and therefore should be mentioned. If we live under an immutable fate, no
supplication can change its decisions; religion is unavailing, it is
useless to ask the oracles to reveal the secrets of a future which nothing
can change, and prayers, to use one of Seneca's expressions, are nothing
but "the solace of diseased minds."[51]

And, doubtless, some adepts of astrology, like the Emperor Tiberius,[52]
neglected the practice of religion, because they were convinced that fate
governed all things. Following the example set by the Stoics, they made
absolute submission to an almighty fate and joyful acceptance of the
inevitable a moral duty, and were satisfied to worship the superior power
that ruled the universe, without demanding anything in return. They
considered themselves at the mercy of even the most capri