ULERS--United States, James Monroe; Great Britain, George IV; France,
Louis XVIII; Spain, Ferdinand VII; Prussia, Frederick William III; Russia,
Alexander I; Austria, Francis I; Pope Pius VII.=

1822

The Turks slaughtered some twenty-five thousand Greeks on the island of
Scio (Chios), and sold the surviving women and children into slavery.
Constantine Kanaris, unaided, burned the flag-ship of the Turkish fleet. A
Turkish army under Dramalis invaded the Grecian mainland, and reached
Corinth, but gained no decisive success. Other nations, in response to
popular sympathy for the Greeks, intervened to put an end to the war.
Spain disturbed by civil war; King Ferdinand VII imprisoned in his own
palace. Spanish efforts to reconquer the revolted colonies in South
America ended disastrously in the battle of Ayacucho, in which General
Sucre, a lieutenant of the great liberator Bolivar, decisively defeated
the Spaniards. Brazil became independent of Portugal by a peaceful
revolution, which set Dom Pedro, son of the Portuguese king, upon the
Brazilian throne with the title of emperor. General Iturbide proclaimed
himself Emperor of Mexico.

Percussion-caps invented. Cabs introduced in London, and their use
immediately spread. Aleppo, Syria, destroyed by an earthquake; twenty
thousand people killed. Percy Bysshe Shelley, English poet; Sir William
Herschel, astronomer; and Antonio Canova, Italian sculptor, died. Viscount
Castlereagh, British statesman, committed suicide.

=RULERS--The same as in the previous year.=

1823

Louis XVIII of France decided to invade Spain in order to maintain Bourbon
rule, which was threatened by the Spanish liberal movement; the Cortes
withdrew to Cadiz, which was besieged and captured by the French.
Ferdinand VII, being restored to absolute power, dissolved the Cortes,
despite all persuasion annulled the constitution, and implacably punished
by death, exile, or imprisonment all who had sided against him. The
struggle between the Greeks and the Turks continued with much desperate
fighting, but no decisive result. A notable episode of the war was the
gallant defense of Missolonghi by Markos Bozzaris. Central America
declared itself free from Spanish rule.

In the United States, 1823 is historically memorable as the year in which
President Monroe, in his annual message to Congress, enunciated the
so-called Monroe Doctrine, which has since been the keynote of American
foreign policy. First stea