ailroads and street railways, found
it almost essential to their existence. They received not only their
franchises but frequently large bonuses from the public treasury. The
Pacific roads alone were endowed with an empire of 145,000,000 acres of
public land. States, counties, and cities freely loaned their credit
and gave ample charters to new railway lines which were to stimulate
prosperity.

City councils, legislatures, mayors, governors, Congress, and presidents
were drawn into the maelstrom of commercialism. It is not surprising
that side by side with the new business organization there grew up a
new political organization, and that the new business magnate was
accompanied by a new political magnate. The party machine and the party
boss were the natural product of the time, which was a time of gain and
greed. It was a sordid reaction, indeed, from the high principles that
sought victory on the field of battle and that found their noblest
embodiment in the character of Abraham Lincoln.

The dominant and domineering party chose the leading soldier of the
North as its candidate for President. General Grant, elected as a
popular idol because of his military genius, possessed neither the
experience nor the skill to countermove the machinations of designing
politicians and their business allies. On the other hand, he soon
displayed an admiration for business success that placed him at once in
accord with the spirit of the hour. He exalted men who could make money
rather than men who could command ideas. He chose Alexander T. Stewart,
the New York merchant prince, one of the three richest men of his day,
for Secretary of the Treasury. The law, however, forbade the appointment
to this office of any one who should "directly or indirectly be
concerned or interested in carrying on the business of trade
or commerce," and Stewart was disqualified. Adolph E. Borie of
Philadelphia, whose qualifications were the possession of great wealth
and the friendship of the President, was named Secretary of the Navy.
Another personal friend, John A. Rawlins, was named Secretary of War.
A third friend, Elihu B. Washburne of Illinois, was made Secretary
of State. Washburne soon resigned, and Hamilton Fish of New York was
appointed in his place. Fish, together with General Jacob D. Cox
of Ohio, Secretary of the Interior, and Judge E. Rockwood Hoar of
Massachusetts, Attorney-General, formed a strong triumvirate of ability
and character in the