of Buffon,
Montesquieu, Diderot, and, more especially, Voltaire, whose motto, _N'en
croyez rien_, she adopted, endeavored, and for a while not without
success, to introduce into her own country the spirit of tolerance which
pervaded France. Her ukases were intended for all alike, "without
distinction of religion and nationality." Her regard for her Jewish
citizens she showed by allowing them to settle in the interior,
establish printing-presses (January 27, 1783), and become civil and
Government officers (April 2, 1785). In the edict promulgated by
Governor-General Chernyshev it is stated that "religious liberty and
inviolability of property are hereby granted to all subjects of Russia
and certainly to the Jews; for the humanitarian principles of her
Majesty do not permit the exclusion of the Jews alone from the favors
shown to all, so long as they, as faithful subjects, continue to employ
themselves, as hitherto, with commerce and trade, each according to his
vocation." That she remained true to her promise, we see from the
numerous privileges enjoyed by many Jews, who began to frequent Moscow
and St. Petersburg and reside there for business purposes.

Paul (1796-1801), too, was kindly disposed toward the Jews, and
permitted them to live in Courland; and when Alexander I (1801-1825)
became czar, their hopes turned into certainty. Alexander I did, indeed,
appear a most promising ruler at his accession. The theories he had
acquired from Laharpe he fully intended to apply to practical life. Like
Catherine, he wished to rule in equity and promote the welfare of his
subjects irrespective of race or creed. He ordered a commission to
investigate the status of the Russian Jews (December 9, 1802). The
result was the polozheniye (enactment) of December 9, 1804, according to
which Jews were to be eligible to one-third of all municipal offices;
they were to be permitted to establish factories, become agriculturists,
and either attend the schools and colleges of the empire on the same
footing as subjects of the Christian faith, or, if they desired, found
and maintain schools of their own. The approach of the great Usurper and
the crushing defeat the Russians sustained at the battle of Friedland
(June 4, 1808) also favored the advance of the Jews. As the short, but
troublous, reign of Paul and his wars with Turkey, Persia, Prussia,
Poland, and Sweden had impoverished the country and depleted the
treasury, the shrewd Alexander was n