n by the demon
of unrest, employed his sacred hands in carpentering and other menial
occupations, took part openly in the uproarious orgies of his foreign
soldiery, and, in short, did everything that "the Lord's anointed"
might reasonably be expected not to do. No wonder the Muscovites were
scandalised by his conduct, and that some of them suspected he was not
the Tsar at all, but Antichrist in disguise. And no wonder he felt the
atmosphere of Moscow oppressive, and preferred living in the new capital
which he had himself created.

His avowed object in building St. Petersburg was to have "a window by
which the Russians might look into civilised Europe"; and well has
the city fulfilled its purpose. From its foundation may be dated the
European period of Russian history. Before Peter's time Russia belonged
to Asia rather than to Europe, and was doubtless regarded by Englishmen
and Frenchmen pretty much as we nowadays regard Bokhara or Kashgar;
since that time she has formed an integral part of the European
political system, and her intellectual history has been but a reflection
of the intellectual history of Western Europe, modified and coloured by
national character and by peculiar local conditions.

When we speak of the intellectual history of a nation we generally mean
in reality the intellectual history of the upper classes. With regard
to Russia, more perhaps than with regard to any other country, this
distinction must always carefully be borne in mind. Peter succeeded in
forcing European civilisation on the nobles, but the people remained
unaffected. The nation was, as it were, cleft in two, and with each
succeeding generation the cleft has widened. Whilst the masses clung
obstinately to their time-honoured customs and beliefs, the nobles
came to look on the objects of popular veneration as the relics of a
barbarous past, of which a civilised nation ought to be ashamed.

The intellectual movement inaugurated by Peter had a purely practical
character. He was himself a thorough utilitarian, and perceived clearly
that what his people needed was not theological or philosophical
enlightment, but plain, practical knowledge suitable for the
requirements of everyday life. He wanted neither theologians nor
philosophers, but military and naval officers, administrators, artisans,
miners, manufacturers, and merchants, and for this purpose he introduced
secular technical education. For the young generation primary schools
wer