e founded, and for more advanced pupils the best foreign works on
fortification, architecture, navigation, metallurgy, engineering and
cognate subjects were translated into the native tongue. Scientific men
and cunning artificers were brought into the country, and young Russians
were sent abroad to learn foreign languages and the useful arts. In a
word, everything was done that seemed likely to raise the Russians to
the level of material well-being already attained by the more advanced
nations.

We have here an important peculiarity in the intellectual development
of Russia. In Western Europe the modern scientific spirit, being the
natural offspring of numerous concomitant historical causes, was born in
the natural way, and Society had, consequently, before giving birth to
it, to endure the pains of pregnancy and the throes of prolonged labour.
In Russia, on the contrary, this spirit appeared suddenly as an adult
foreigner, adopted by a despotic paterfamilias. Thus Russia made the
transition from mediaeval to modern times without any violent struggle
between the old and the new conceptions such as had taken place in the
West. The Church, effectually restrained from all active opposition by
the Imperial power, preserved unmodified her ancient beliefs; whilst the
nobles, casting their traditional conceptions and beliefs to the
winds, marched forward unfettered on that path which their fathers and
grandfathers had regarded as the direct road to perdition.

During the first part of Peter's reign Russia was not subjected to
the exclusive influence of any one particular country. Thoroughly
cosmopolitan in his sympathies, the great reformer, like the Japanese
of the present day, was ready to borrow from any foreign nation--German,
Dutch, Danish, or French--whatever seemed to him to suit his purpose.
But soon the geographical proximity to Germany, the annexation of
the Baltic Provinces in which the civilisation was German, and
intermarriages between the Imperial family and various German dynasties,
gave to German influence a decided preponderance. When the Empress Anne,
Peter's niece, who had been Duchess of Courland, entrusted the whole
administration of the country to her favourite Biron, the German
influence became almost exclusive, and the Court, the official world,
and the schools were Germanised.

The harsh, cruel, tyrannical rule of Biron produced a strong reaction,
ending in a revolution, which raised to the throne th