ubject of the preceding chapters were the ultimate cause of the
crisis that led to the fall of the Roman Republic. In the present chapter
it will be our task to trace the changes and indicate the problems that
had their origin in these wars and the ensuing conquests. Such a survey is
best begun by considering the character of the Roman government during the
epoch in question.

I. THE RULE OF THE SENATORIAL ARISTOCRACY

*The Senate's control over the magistrates, tribunate, and assemblies.*
From the passing of the Hortensian Law in 287 B. C. to the tribunate of
Tiberius Gracchus in 133 B. C. the Senate exercised a practically
unchallenged control over the policy of the Roman state. For the Senate
was able to guide or nullify the actions of the magistrates, the
tribunate, and the assemblies; a condition made possible by the
composition of the Senate, which, in addition to the ex-magistrates,
included all those above the rank of quaestor actually in office, and by
the peculiar organization and limitations of the Roman popular assemblies.

The higher magistrates were simply committees of senators elected by the
assemblies. Their interests were those of the Senate as a whole, and
constitutional practice required them to seek its advice upon all matters
of importance. The Senate assigned to the consuls and praetors their
spheres of duty, appointed pro-magistrates and allotted them their
commands, and no contracts let by the censors were valid unless approved
by the Senate. Except when the consuls were in the city, the Senate
controlled all expenditures from the public treasury.

The chief weapon of the tribunes, their right of veto, which had been
instituted as a check upon the power of the Senate and the magistrates,
became an instrument whereby the Senate bridled the tribunate itself. For,
since after 287 the plebeians speedily came to constitute a majority in
the senate chamber, it was not difficult for this body to secure the veto
of the tribunes upon any measures of which it disapproved, whether they
originated with a consul or a tribune.

And, because the popular assemblies could only vote upon such measures or
for such candidates as were submitted to them by the presiding
magistrates, the Senate through its influence over magistrates and
tribunes controlled both the legislative and elective activities of the
comitia.

*The Senate and the public policy.* Since the Senate was a permanent body,