ies and thus of
the regular gateway to the senate chamber. This they could do because the
expense involved in holding public offices, which were without salary, and
in conducting the election campaigns, which became increasingly costly as
time went on, deterred all but persons of considerable fortune from
seeking office, and because the exercise of personal influence and the
right of the officer conducting an election to reject the candidature of a
person of whom he disapproved, made it possible to prevent in most cases
the election of any one not _persona grata_ to the majority of the
senators. It was only individuals of exceptional force and ability, like
Cato the Elder, and in later times Marius and Cicero, who could penetrate
the barriers thus established. Such a person was signalled as a _novus
homo_, a "new-comer."

*The goal of office.* While Rome was hard-pressed by her enemies and while
the issue of the struggle for world empire was still in doubt, the Senate
displayed to a remarkable degree the qualities of self-sacrifice and
steadfastness which so largely contributed to Rome's ultimate triumph, as
well as great political adroitness in the foreign relations of the state.
But with the passing of all external dangers, personal ambition and class
interest became more and more evident to the detriment of its patriotism
and prestige. Office-holding, with the opportunities it offered for ruling
over subject peoples and of commanding in profitable wars, became a ready
means for securing for oneself and one's friends the wealth which was
needed to maintain the new standard of luxurious living now affected by
the ruling class of the imperial city. The higher magistracies were
rendered still more valuable in the eyes of the senators when the latter
were prohibited from participating directly in commercial ventures outside
of Italy by a law passed in 219 B. C., which forbade senators to own ships
of seagoing capacity, with the object probably of preventing the foreign
policy of the state from being directed by commercial interests. As a
consequence the rivalry for office became extremely keen, and the
customary canvassing for votes tended to degenerate into bribery both of
individuals and of the voting masses. In the latter case it took the form
of entertaining the public by the elaborate exhibition of lavish
spectacles in the theatre and the arena.

*Attempts to restrain abuses.* However, the sense of responsibility was