TERRITORIAL EXPANSION IN THREE CONTINENTS: 167-133 B. C.

*Roman foreign policy.* The foreign relations of Rome from 167 to 133
B. C. fall into two distinct periods. In the earlier, Roman foreign policy
is directed towards securing Roman domination throughout the Mediterranean
by diplomatic means. War and annexation of territory are avoided as
causing too great a drain upon the resources of the state and creating
difficult administrative problems. In the later period this policy is
abandoned for one more aggressively imperialistic, which does not hesitate
to appeal to armed force and aims at the incorporation of conquered
territory within the empire. This change of policy was largely due to the
influence of that group in the senate which was eager for foreign
commands, the honors of a triumph, and the spoils of war, as well as that
of the non-senatorial financial interests which sought to open up new
fields for exploitation. It was also felt that the prestige of Rome had
suffered by the disregard of some of her diplomatic representations.

This policy of expansion resulted in prolonged wars in Spain, the
annexation of Carthage and Macedon, the establishment of direct control
over Greece, and the acquisition of territory in Asia Minor. The new
tendencies become apparent shortly before 150 B. C.

I. THE SPANISH WARS: 154-133 B. C.

*The revolts of the Celtiberians and the Lusitanians: 154-139 B. C.* In
154 B. C. revolts broke out in both Hither and Farther Spain. A series of
long and bloody campaigns ensued, which were prolonged by the incapacity,
cruelty and faithlessness of the Roman commanders, and caused a heavy
drain upon the military resources of Italy. The chief opponents of the
Romans were the Celtiberians of Hither, and the Lusitanians of Farther
Spain. The desperate character of these wars made service in Spain very
unpopular, and levies for the campaign of 151 were raised with difficulty.
The tribunes interceded to protect certain persons, and when their
intercession was disregarded by the consuls they cast the latter into
prison. In 150 B. C. the pro-consul Galba treacherously massacred
thousands of Lusitanians with whom he had made a treaty. For this he was
brought to trial by Cato, but was acquitted.

The massacre led to a renewed outbreak under Viriathus, an able guerilla
leader who defied the power of Rome for about eight years (147-139 B. C.).
Forced eventually