le walls and
force the bulk of the population to work on the outer and poorer
areas.

_The Wide Range of Difference between the Pay of Different Classes of
Laborers under Trade Unions._--The possible range of the rise of pay
which monopoly may insure for certain laborers is far greater than
that which any action can secure for labor as a whole. Mere collective
bargaining makes some difference, indeed, but where there is no
attempt to exclude from a favored field workers of the poorly paid
class, the range of difference is not great. To double the pay of
laborers of every class would require more than the entire income of
society, and yet it is possible for a few workers to make as large a
gain as this. Some organizations without monopoly may keep the actual
pay of labor somewhat near to its theoretical standard. With monopoly
they may carry it far above the standard set by the marginal
productivity of social labor.

_The Differing Efficiency of Organization as used against Different
Classes of Employers._--When employers are acting independently, a
trade union which deals with them one at a time may very easily bring
the pay of its members up to a certain average standard. A strike
against a single producer may be very disastrous for him, since it may
cause him to lose his customers. If the general state of business is
good, he will pay all that he can rather than see business drift away
from him, but what he can pay is somewhat strictly limited. He cannot
safely give more than what is given by most of his competitors.
Organization in such a case is a good equalizer of pay, and as its
power is used against different employers successively, it suffices to
raise general pay toward or to a standard set by the productivity of
the labor. Moreover, as a rule, it can accomplish this without any
appeal to violence. A modest and reasonable demand enforced by a
wholly peaceable strike is likely to be conceded.

_The Power of a Strike against All Entrepreneurs in a Subgroup._--A
strike against employers in an entire subgroup may gain more for the
workmen, but the more ambitious effort encounters stronger resistance.
The employers, we assume, are competing still and have not the power
which a monopoly would give them to raise the prices of their
products. Nevertheless, they can concede somewhat more when they act
together than one of them could concede separately. A concurrent
raising of prices is entirely possible without any