l
presented, "as a substitute for the abortive classification of
Existences, termed the categories of Aristotle," the following as an
enumeration of all nameable things:--(1) Feelings, or states of
consciousness; (2) The minds which experience these feelings; (3)
Bodies, or external objects which excite certain of those feelings;
(4) Successions and co-existences, likenesses and unlikenesses,
between feelings or states of consciousness.[14] This classification
proceeds on a quite peculiar view of the categories, and is here
presented only for the sake of completeness.

Modern psychologists.

By modern psychologists the subject has been closely investigated.
Professor G.F. Stout (_Manual of Psychology_, vol. ii. pp. 312 foll.)
defines categories as "forms of cognitive consciousness, universal
principles or relations presupposed either in all cognition or in all
cognition of a certain kind." He then treats External (or Physical)
Reality, Space, Time, Causality and "Thinghood" from the standpoint of
the perceptual consciousness; showing in what sense the categories of
causality, substance and the rest exist in the sphere of perception.
As contrasted with the ideational, the perceptual consciousness is
concerned with practice. Perception tells the child of things as
separate entities, not in their ultimate relations as parts of a
coherent whole. G.T. Ladd (_Psychology Descriptive and Explanatory_,
ch. xxi., on "Space, Time and Causality") defines the categories from
the psychological standpoint as "those highly abstract conceptions
which the mind frames by reflection upon its own most general modes of
behaviour. They are our own notions resulting from co-operation of
imagination and judgment, concerning the ultimate and unanalyzable
forms of our own existence and development." In other words, the
categories are highly abstract, have no content, and are realized as a
kind of thinking which has for its object all the other mental
processes.

AUTHORITIES.--Besides those quoted above, see Eduard v. Hartmann,
_Kategorienlehre_ (Leipzig, 1896), and "Begriff der
Kategorialfunktion", in _Zeitschr. f. Philos. und phil. Krit._ cxv.
(1899), pp. 9-19; E. Konig in the same periodical cxiii. (1889), pp.
232-279, and cxiv. (1899), pp. 78-105; F.A. Trendelenburg, _Geschichte
der Kategorienlehre_ (1846); P. Ragnisco _Storia critica delle
categorie_ (2 vols.,