ecular except Christ Church, Dublin (Augustinian), and Down
(Benedictine), and none, even in their earliest days, were ever, it is
believed, churches of recognized orders of monks, except the two named.
In Scotland St Andrew's was Augustinian, Elgin (or Moray), Glasgow and
Aberdeen were always secular, and ordered on the models of Lincoln and
Salisbury. Brechin had a community of Culdees till 1372, when a secular
chapter was constituted. The cathedral church of Galloway, at Whithorn,
of English foundation, was a church of Praemonstratensians. In Germany,
as in England, many of the cathedral churches were monastic. In Denmark
all seem to have been Benedictine at first, except Borglum, which was
Praemonstratensian till the Reformation. The others were changed to
churches of secular canons. In Sweden, Upsala was originally
Benedictine, but was secularized about 1250, and it was ordered that
each of the cathedral churches of Sweden should have a chapter of at
least fifteen secular canons. In France monastic chapters were very
common, but nearly all the monastic cathedral churches there had been
changed to churches of secular canons before the 17th century. One of
the latest to be so changed was that of Seez, in Normandy, which was
Augustinian till 1547, when Pope Paul III. dispensed the members from
their vows, and constituted them a chapter of secular canons. The
chapter of Senez was monastic till 1647, and others perhaps even later,
but the majority were secularized about the time of the Reformation.

In the case of monastic cathedral churches there were no dignitaries,
the internal government was that of the order to which the chapter
belonged, and all the members kept perpetual residence. The reverse of
this was the case with the secular chapters; the dignities of provost,
dean, precentor, chancellor, treasurer, &c., soon came into being, for
the regulation and good order of the church and its services, while the
non-residence of the canons, rather than their perpetual residence,
became the rule, and led to their duties being performed by a body of
"vicars," who officiated for them at the services of the church.

Abroad, the earliest head of a secular church seems to have been the
provost (_praepositus, Probst_, &c.), who was charged, not only with the
internal regulation of the church, and oversight of the members of the
chapter and control of the services, but was also the steward or
seneschal of the lands and possess