ficers and soldiers recognized alike that they were all under a single
head--the emperor. The officers were drawn from all classes of society,
and this was also a unifying influence. They were on more intimate
relations with their men than the Prussian leaders, and "led" instead
of "drove" them. Commands for the whole army were given in German, but
otherwise the language varied according to the composition of the
various regiments as regarded races. The use of the German language for
commands undoubtedly aided in unifying the army.

CHAPTER LXII

GENERAL STRATEGY OF THE CAMPAIGN

The Austrian army faced the Russians on August 11, 1914, with a
well-organized strategical plan. Austria, realizing the importance of
unity, cohesion, and harmony in her own forces, proposed at the outset
of the war to dissipate the strength of her enemy, Russia, by causing an
uprising in Poland. The vanguard of Austria's advance along the Vistula
consisted of the Galician army corps, made up of Polish soldiers. Along
the border, arms and ammunition had been collected for the anticipated
insurrection. A proclamation was sent by the Polish associations of
Galicia and Posen to their "brethren of Russian Poland." In this, the
Poles of Russia were urged to prepare for a rising, but not to attempt
it until the Austrian vanguard had arrived and won a first battle. Then
arms would be provided for them.

Russian strategy checkmated this plan. The czar issued a proclamation
promising home rule to Poland as soon as Germany and Austria had been
repulsed. With this home rule he also offered self-government and
freedom of law and religion, and the reconstitution of the old Polish
territory by means of the annexation of Posen and Galicia. This move
divided the Polish leaders and stifled the incipient revolution.

The spy system won and lost the first strategical battles before a shot
was fired. There is no doubt that the Austrians before the war knew
almost as much about Russia's preparations as did the Russians
themselves. The Austrian system of espionage was elaborate and accurate,
and the Austrians profited by that of Germany also. Nevertheless,
Russia surprised her foes and allies alike by the rapidity with which
she got her troops into action on the offensive once war was on.

The Russian army was handicapped by lack of railroad facilities, but she
made the most of them. Her total mileage was about 25,000, her system
being inferior to that