es.

In spite of these multifarious safeguards, however, family factions
early destroyed the fabric of liberty, especially as, just as there was
an imperial, or Ghibelline, and a papal, or Guelph party among the
cities as a whole, thus also within each town each faction would allege
adherence to and claim support by one or other of the great
world-powers. To get out of the dilemma of party-government, resort was
thereupon had to the appointment as chief magistrate of a _podesta_ from
among the nobles or knights of a different part of the country not mixed
up with the local feuds. But the end was in most cases the establishment
of the despotism of some leading family, such as the Visconti at Milan,
the Gonzaga at Mantua, the della Scala in Verona and the Carrara in
Padua.

In Tuscany, the historic role of the cities, with the exception of Pisa,
begins at a later date, largely owing to the overlordship of the
powerful margraves of the house of Canossa and their successors, who
here represented the emperor. Pisa, however, together with Genoa, all
through the 11th century distinguished itself by war waged in the
western Mediterranean and its isles against the Saracens. Both cities,
along with Venice, but especially the Genoese, also did excellent
service in reducing the Syrian coast towns still in the hands of the
Turks in the reigns of Kings Baldwin I. and Baldwin II. of Jerusalem,
while more particularly Pisa with great constancy placed her fleet at
the disposal of the Hohenstaufen emperors for warfare with Sicily.

Meanwhile communes with consuls at their head were formed in Tuscany
much as elsewhere. On the other hand the Tuscan cities managed to
prolong the reign of liberty to a much later epoch, no _podesta_ ever
quite succeeding here in his attempts to establish the rule of his
dynasty. Even when in the second half of the 15th century the Medici in
Florence attained to power, the form at least of a republic was still
maintained, and not till 1531 did one of them, supported by Charles V.,
assume the ducal title.

Long before the last stage, the rule of _signori_, was reached, however,
the commune as originally constituted had everywhere undergone radical
changes. As early as the 13th century the lower orders among the
inhabitants formed an organization under officers of their own, side by
side with that of the commune, which was controlled by the great and the
rich; e.g. at Florence the people in 1250 rose against