nded towns, the same author, _Markt und Stadt in ihrem
rechtlichen Verhaltnis_ (Leipzig, 1897).

[2] About the _Burggraf_, see S. Rietschel, _Das Burggrafenamt und die
hohe Gerichtsbarkeit in den deutschen Bischofsstadten wahrend des
fruheren Mittelalters_ (Leipzig, 1905).

[3] As to the towns as fortresses, see also F. Keutgen,
_Untersuchungen uber den Ursprung der deutschen Stadtverfassung_
(Leipzig, 1895); and "Der Ursprung der deutschen Stadtverfassung"
(_Neue Jahrbucher fur das klassische Altertum_, &c, N.F. vol. v.).

[4] See S. Rietschel, _Markt und Stadt_, and J. Fritz, _Deutsche
Stadtanlagen_ (Strassburg, 1894).

[5] G. von Below, _Die Entstehung der deutschen Stadtgemeinde_
(Dusseldorf, 1889); and _Der Ursprung der deutschen Stadtverfassung_
(Dusseldorf, 1892).

[6] F. Keutgen, _Urkunden zur stadtischen Verfassungsgeschichte_, No.
74 and No. 75 (Berlin, 1901).

[7] F. Keutgen, _Amter und Zunfte_ (Jena, 1903).

[8] J. Weizsacker, _Der rheinische Bund_ (Tubingen, 1879).

[9] G. v. Below, _Der Untergang der mittelalterlichen Stadtwirtschaft;
Uber Theorien der wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung der Volker_; F.
Keutgen, "Hansische Handelsgesellschaften, vornehmlich des 14ten
Jahrhunderts," in _Vierteljahrsschrift fur Sozial- und
Wirtschaftsgeschichte_, vol. iv. (1906).

[10] On this whole subject see Richard Schroder, _Lehrbuch der
deutschen Rechtsgeschichte_ (5th ed., Leipzig, 1907), S 56, "Die
Stadtrechte." Also Charles Gross, _The Gild Merchant_ (Oxford, 1890),
vol. i. Appendix E, "Affiliation of Medieval Boroughs."

[11] H. Kretschmayr, _Geschichte von Venedig_, vol. i. (Gotha, 1905).

COMMUNISM, the name loosely given to schemes of social organizations
depending on the abolition of private property and its absorption into
the property of a community as such. It is a form of what is now
generally called socialism (q.v.), the terminology of which has varied a
good deal according to time and place; but the expression "communism"
may be conveniently used, as opposed to "socialism" in its wider
political sense, or to the political and municipal varieties known as
"collectivism," "state socialism," &c., in order to indicate more
particularly the historical schemes propounded or put into practice for
establishing certain ideally arranged communities composed of
individuals living and working on the basis of holding the