imes also called _prevot_,
_praepositus_). As elsewhere, at first none but the civic aristocracy
were admitted to take part in the management of the town's affairs; but
from the end of the 13th century a share had to be conceded to
representatives of the crafts. Dissatisfaction, however, was not easily
allayed; the lower orders applied for the intervention of the king; and
that effectively put an end to political freedom. This tendency of
calling in state help marks a most striking difference as against the
policy followed by the German towns, where all classes appear to have
been always far too jealous of local independence. The result for the
nation was in the one case despotism, equality and order, in the other
individual liberty and an inability to move as a whole. At an earlier
stage the king had frequently come to the assistance of the communes in
their struggle with their lords. By-and-by the king's confirmation came
to be considered necessary for their lawful existence. This proved a
powerful lever for the extension of the king's authority. It may seem
strange that in France the towns never had recourse to those interurban
leagues which played so important a part in Italian and in German
history.

These two varieties, the _communes_ and the _villes consulaires_
together form the group of _villes libres_. As opposed to these stand
the _villes franches_, also called _villes prevotales_ after the chief
officer, _villes de bourgeoisie_ or _villes soumises_. They make up by
far the majority of French towns, comprising all those situated in the
centre of the kingdom, and also a large number in the north and the
south. They are called _villes franches_ on account of their possessing
a franchise, a charter limiting the services due by the citizens to
their lord, but political status they had little or none. According to
the varying extent of the liberties conceded them, there may be
distinguished towns governed by an elective body and more or less fully
authorized to exercise jurisdiction; towns possessing some sort of
municipal organization, but no rights of jurisdiction, except that of
simple police; and, thirdly, those governed entirely by seignorial
officers. To this last class belong some of the most important cities in
France, wherever the king had power enough to withhold liberties deemed
dangerous and unnecessary. On the other hand, towns of the first
category often come close to the _villes libres_. A strict li