ndependently of his calling, the clergy and the lord's retainers and
servants of whatever rank, who claimed exemption from scot and lot, to
use the English formula, alone excepted. The majority of the artisans,
however, were not in this happy position. Moreover, the town council,
instead of being freely elected, filled up vacancies in its ranks by
co-optation, with the result that all power became vested in a limited
number of rich families. Against this state of things the crafts
rebelled, alleging mismanagement, malversation and the withholding of
justice. During the 14th and 15th centuries revolutions and
counter-revolutions, sometimes accompanied by considerable slaughter,
were frequent, and a great variety of more democratic constitutions were
tried. Zurich, however, is the only German place where a kind of
_tyrannis_, so frequent in Italy, came to be for a while established. On
the whole it must be said that in those towns where the democratic party
gained the upper hand an unruly policy abroad and a narrow-minded
protection at home resulted. An inclination to hasty measures of war and
an unwillingness to observe treaties among the democratic towns of
Swabia were largely responsible for the disasters of the war of the
Swabian League in the 14th century. At home, whereas at first markets
had been free and open to any comer, a more and more protective policy
set in, traders from other towns being subjected more and more to
vexatious restrictions. It was also made increasingly difficult to
obtain membership in the craft-gilds, high admission fees and so-called
masterpieces being made a condition. Finally, the number of members
became fixed, and none but members' sons and sons-in-law, or members'
widows' husbands were received. The first result was the formation of a
numerous proletariate of life-long assistants and of men and women
forcibly excluded from following any honest trade; and the second
consequence, the economic ruin of the town to the exclusive advantage of
a limited number. From the end of the 15th century population in many
towns decreased, and not only most of the smaller ones, but even some
once important centres of trade, sank to the level almost of villages.
Those cities, on the other hand, where the mercantile community remained
in power, like Nuremberg and the seaboard towns, on the whole followed a
more enlightened policy, although even they could not quite keep clear
of the ever-growing protective