an a summation of the past years of
struggle and aspiration. It symbolized certain new directions: a
deeper concern for the economic problems of the masses, more
involvement of white moderates and new demands from the most
militant, who implied that only a revolutionary change in
American institutions would permit Negroes to achieve the dignity
of citizens.[19-14]

[Footnote 19-14: _Report of the National Advisory
Commission on Civil Disorders_, p. 109.]

_Limitations on Executive Order 9981_

The decade of national civil rights activity that culminated
symbolically at the Lincoln Memorial in 1963 was closely mirrored in
the Department of Defense, where the services' definition of equal
treatment and opportunity underwent a marked evolution. Here, a decade
that had begun with the department's placing severe limitations on its
defense of black servicemen's civil rights ended with the department's
joining the vanguard of the civil rights movement.

In the early 1950's the services were constantly referring to the
limitations of Executive Order 9981. The Air Force could not intervene
in local custom, Assistant Secretary Zuckert told Clarence Mitchell in
1951. Social change in local communities must be evolutionary, he
continued, either ignoring or contrasting the Air Force's own social
experience.[19-15] Defending the practice of maintaining large
training camps in localities discriminating against black soldiers,
the Army Chief of Staff explained to Senator Homer Ferguson of
Michigan that while its facilities were open to all soldiers
regardless of race, the Army had no control over nearby civilian
communities. There was little its commanders could do beyond urging
local civic organizations to cooperate.[19-16] The Deputy Chief of
Naval Personnel was even more blunt. "The housing situation at Key
West is not within the control of the Navy," he told the Assistant
Secretary of Defense in 1953. Housing was segregated, he admitted, but
it was the Federal Housing Authority, not the Navy, that controlled
the location of off-base housing for black sailors.[19-17]

[Footnote 19-15: Memo, Lt Col Leon Bell, Asst Exec,
Off, Asst SecAF, for Col Barnes, Office, SecAF, 9
Jan 51, SecAF files.]

[Footnote 19-16: Ltr, CofSA to Ferguson, 7 May 51; see
also Ltr, Under SA