oses to this the doctrine of necessity. There is no
reason or intelligence in the world. On the contrary, all phenomena
and all becoming are completely determined by blind mechanical causes.
In this connection there arises {92} among the Atomists a polemic
against the popular gods and the popular religion. Belief in gods
Democritus explains as being due to fear of great terrestrial and
astronomical phenomena, such as volcanoes, earthquakes, comets, and
meteors. But somewhat inconsistently with this, Democritus believed
that the air is inhabited by beings resembling men, but larger and of
longer life, and explained belief in the gods as being due to
projection from these of images of themselves composed of atoms which
impinge upon human senses, and produce the ideas of gods.

Different kinds of matter must be explained, in any atomic theory, by
the shape, size, and position of the atoms of which they are composed.
Thus the Atomists taught that fire is composed of smooth round atoms.
The soul is also composed of smooth round atoms, and is an
exceptionally pure and refined fire. At death the soul atoms are
scattered, and hence there is, of course, no question of a future
life. Democritus also put forward a theory of perception, according to
which objects project into space images of themselves composed of
atoms. These images strike against the senses. Like atoms are
perceived by like. Thought is true when the soul is equable in
temperature. The sensible qualities of things, such as smell, taste,
colour, do not exist in the things themselves, but merely express the
manner in which they affect our senses, and are therefore relative to
us. A number of the ethical maxims of Democritus have come down to us.
But they are not based in any way upon the Atomic theory, and cannot
be deduced from it. Hence they have no scientific foundation but are
merely detached sayings, epitomizing the experience {93} and worldly
wisdom of Democritus. That one should enjoy oneself as much and vex
oneself as little as possible seems to have been his principal idea.
This, however, is not to be interpreted in any low, degraded, or
sensual way. On the contrary, Democritus says that the happiness of
man does not depend on material possessions, but upon the state of the
soul. He praises equanimity and cheerfulness, and these are best
attained, he thinks, by moderation and simplicity.

{94}

CHAPTER VIII

ANAXAGORAS

Anaxagoras was born at Cla