uthor's life
and 50 years after.

_Italy._--Life of author, or 40 years from date of publication; and
afterwards a further period of 40 years, subject to a right in others to
reproduce on payment of 5% on each copy.

_Japan._--Author's life and 30 years after.

_Norway_, by a law of 1893, gives protection for author's life and 50
years after.

_Portugal._--Author's life and 50 years after.

_Russia._--Author's life and 50 years.

_Spain._--Author's life and 80 years thereafter.

_Sweden and Denmark_ provide for a term of the author's lifetime and 50
years after.

_Switzerland._--Author's life and 30 years after.

_Turkey._--Author's life, or 40 years, whichever is the longer.

American law.

17. _United States._--American copyright is provided for by an act of
March 1909, which replaced acts of July 1870 and March 1891, both of
which had introduced important modifications in the original act of
1790. Under all acts preceding that of 1891, copyright had been granted
to "citizens or residents of the United States," the term "resident"
having been, in decisions prior to 1891, construed to mean a person
domiciled in the United States with the intention of making there his
permanent abode. The works of foreigners could thus be reproduced
without authorization, and they were so reproduced in so far as there
was prospect of financial gain. The leading publishers, however, had
from the earliest times made terms with British authors, or with their
representatives, the British publishers, for producing authorized
American editions. But at most they were only able to secure by this
means an advantage of a few weeks' priority over the unauthorized
editions, and the good-will of the conscientious buyer; so that if they
paid the author any considerable sum, the price of the authorized
editions had to be made so high that it was not easy to secure a
remunerative sale. The unauthorized editions had the further advantage
in competition, that for the purpose of being manufactured more promptly
and more economically, they could be and often were issued in an
abbreviated and garbled form, an injury which to not a few writers
seemed more grievous than the lack of pecuniary profit. In Great
Britain, during the first half of the 19th century, the copyright law
had been so interpreted as to secure recognition of the rights of
American authors for such works as were produced there not later than in
any other country, so that