the midst
of the later and softer deposits on the inner border of the sandstone
zone. Their relations to the surrounding beds are still obscure. They
may be "rootless" masses brought upon the top of the later beds by
thrustplanes. They may be the pinched-up summits of sharp anticlinals,
which in the process of folding have been forced through the softer
rocks which lay upon them. Or, finally, they may have been islands
rising above the waters, in which were deposited the later beds which
now surround them. The so-called _Klippen_ of the Swiss Alps are now
usually supposed to rest upon thrustplanes, but they are not strictly
analogous, either in structure or in position, with those of the
Carpathians. Of all the peculiar features of the Carpathian chain,
perhaps the most remarkable is the fringe of volcanic rocks which lies
along its inner margin. The outbursts began in the later part of the
Eocene period, and continued into the Pliocene, outlasting the period
of folding. They appear to be associated with faulting upon the inner
margin of the chain. Trachytes, rhyolites, andesites and basalts
occur, and a definite order of succession has been made out in several
areas; but this order is not the same throughout the chain.

Climate, Flora, Fauna.

The Carpathians, like the Alps, form a protective wall to the regions
south of them, which enjoy a much milder climate than those situated
to the north. The vegetation of these regions is naturally subjected
to the different climateric conditions. The mountains themselves are
mostly covered with forests, and their vegetation presents four zones:
that of the beech extends to an altitude of 4000 ft.; that of the
Scottish fir to 1000 ft. higher. Above this grows a species of pine,
which becomes dwarfed and disappears at an altitude of about 6000 ft.,
beyond which is a zone of lichen and moss covered or almost bare rock.
The highest parts in the High Tatra and in the Transylvanian Mountains
have a flora similar to that of the Alps, more specially that of the
middle region. Remarkable is the sea-shore flora, which is found in
the numerous salt-impregnated lakes, ponds and marshes in
Transylvania. As regards the fauna, the Carpathians still contain
numerous bears, wolves and lynxes, as well as birds of prey. It
presents a characteristic feature in its mollusc fauna, which contains
many species not found in the