aching and by copying manuscripts, and the former in the
same manner, or by reciting the Koran. To meet the demand for better
qualified judges for the Moslem courts a training college for cadis
was established in 1907. Besides the subjects taught at the Azhar
university, instruction is given in literature, mathematics and
physical science. The necessity for a reorganization of the Azhar
system itself being also recognized by the high Moslem dignitaries in
Egypt, a law was passed in 1907 creating a superior board of control
under the presidency of the Sheikh el-Azhar to supervise the
proceedings of the university and other similar establishments. This
attempt to reform the Azhar met, however, with so much opposition that
in 1909 it was, for the time, abandoned.

In 1907, of the sedentary Egyptian population over seven years of age,
some 12% of the Moslems could read and write, female literacy having
increased 50% since 1897; of the foreign population over seven years
of age 75% could read and write. Of the Coptic community about 50% can
read and write.

_Literature and the Press._--Since the British occupation there has
been a marked renaissance of Arabic learning and literature in Egypt.
Societies formed for the encouragement of Arabic literature have
brought to light important texts bearing on Mahommedan history,
antiquities and religion. Numbers of magazines and reviews are
published in Arabic which cater both for the needs of the moment and
the advancement of learning. Side by side with these literary organs
there exists a vernacular press largely devoted to nationalist
propaganda. Prominent among these papers is _Al Lewa_ (_The
Standard_), founded in 1900. Other papers of a similar character are
_Al Omma_, _Al Moayad_ and _Al Gerida_. The _Mokattam_ represents the
views of the more enlightened and conservative section of the native
population. In Cairo and Alexandria there are also published several
newspapers in English and French.

AUTHORITIES.--(a) General descriptions, geography, travel, &c.:
_Description de l'Egypte_, 10 folio vols. and atlas of 10 vols.
(Paris, 1809-1822), compiled by the scientific commission sent to
Egypt by Bonaparte; Clot Bey, _Apercu general sur l'Egypte_, 2 vols.
(Paris, 1840); Boinet Bey, _Dictionnaire geographique de l'Egypte_
(Cairo, 1899); Murray's and Baedeker's handbooks and _Guide Joanne_;
G. Ebers, _Egyp