ystem. It had
neither villeins nor slaves. Whenever Kings asserted authority
over it, the citizens reacted until the king "granted" a charter
reaffirming the freedoms of the city and its independence.

Under pressure from the ecclesiastical judges, the Conquerer
replaced the death penalty by that of the mutilation of blinding,
chopping off hands, and castrating offenders. Castration was the
punishment for rape. But these mutilations usually led to a slow
death by gangrene.

The Normans used the Anglo-Saxon concepts of jurisdictional
powers. Thus when the Conquerer confirmed "customs" to the abbot
of Ely, these were understood to include the following: 1) sac and
soke - the right to hold a court of private jurisdiction and enjoy
its profits, 2) toll - a payment in towns, markets, and fairs for
goods and chattel bought and sold, 3) team - persons might be
vouched to warranty in the court, the grant of which made a court
capable of hearing suits arising from the transfer of land, 4)
infangenthef - right of trying and executing thieves on one's
land, 4) hamsocne, 5) grithbrice - violation of the grantees'
special peace, for instance that of the sheriff, 6) fightwite -
fine for a general breach of the peace, 7) fyrdwite - fine for
failure to appear in the fyrd.

Every shire, now called "county", had at least one burh, or
defensible town. Kings had appointed a royal moneyer in each burh
to mint silver coins such as pennies for local use. On one side
was the King's head in profile and on the other side was the name of
the moneyer. When a new coinage was issued, all moneyers had to go
to London to get the new dies. The Conquerer's head faced
frontally on his dies, instead of the usual profile used by former
Kings.

The Conquerer held and presided over his council three times a
year, as was the custom, at Easter, Christmas, and Whitsuntide,
which coincided with the great Christian festivals. This was an
advisory council and consisted of the Conquerer's wife and sons,
earls, barons, knights, officers of the King's household,
archbishops, and bishops. It replaced the witan of wise men. It
dealt with fundamental matters of law, state, war, and church. Its
functions were largely ceremonial. Earldoms and knighthoods were
conferred and homages to the king were witnessed. Bishops were
nominated. Attendance at the council, like attendance at courts,
was regarded as a burden rather than a privilege. The Conquerer's
will was the m