tution. The modern trade unions, on the other
hand, have done nothing to assist in restoring apprenticeship to its
proper place; on the contrary, they have hampered it by restrictions
which they have imposed, limiting the number of apprentices who may be
taken. The result of fewer apprentices has been not only to lower the
standard of skill in the higher trades, but to reduce the productive
capacity of the artisans. The altered conditions now attending
apprenticeship are, mainly, that the apprentice does not live with the
master, and that the term is generally five years instead of a longer
period; but the principle remains precisely the same, and the fact that
it is applied more and more largely in Austria, Germany and other
countries is an evidence of its necessity.

The contract of apprenticeship is generally created by indenture, but
any writing properly expressed and attested will do. The full
consideration must be set out, and the instrument, whether a premium is
paid or not, must be duly stamped, except in the case of parish
apprentices and apprentices to the sea service (see SEAMEN, LAWS
RELATING TO). Where a charity or institution intervenes, it retains
control over the indentures until the end of the term of apprenticeship,
when the indenture should be cancelled and given up to the apprentice.
Any one who is capable of making a contract can take an apprentice, and
the law does not limit the number which may be taken by any master. Any
person of legal capacity can bind himself as an apprentice, provided he
is over seven years of age, though, as he is by the common law exempt
from all liability _ex contractu_, it is usual for the apprentice's
relations or friends to become bound for his service and good conduct
during the period of his apprenticeship. The consent of the apprentice,
however, must be expressed by his executing the indenture. No child
under nine can be bound as a parish apprentice. The master must teach
the apprentice the agreed trade or trades; should the master exercise
two trades (which he has agreed to teach) and give up one, it would be
good ground for dissolving the contract by the apprentice. An apprentice
is not bound to work on Sundays, but he may be required to work on bank
holidays. He cannot become a volunteer (soldier) without his master's
consent. It is usual in the indenture to state whether the apprentice is
to be paid wages or otherwise. If the contract is to pay wages, no
deductio