was to preach against
abuses. Zwingli drew his knowledge and faith from the Bible, holding
that for authority one ought to return to it or to the primitive
church. He advocated the abolition of image-worship, and, in addition,
the abolition of enforced celibacy, nunneries, and the celebration of
the mass. He held, too, that there ought to be a return to local
church government, and {386} that all of the cloisters should be
converted into schools. He objected to so many days being devoted to
the festivals of the saints, because it lessened the productive power
of the people. The whole tenor of his preaching was that the Bible
should be used as the basis of doctrine, and that there is no mediation
except through Jesus Christ. As to the doctrine of the sacrament, he
believed that the bread and wine are merely symbols, thus approximating
the belief as established by the Protestants of the present day. On
the other hand, Luther persistently held to the doctrine of
transubstantiation, though the organized Protestant churches held to
"consubstantiation."

The Reformation in Switzerland tended to develop more strongly an
independent political existence, to make for freedom and righteousness,
to work practical reforms in the abuses of both church and state, and
to promote a deeper spiritual religion among the people.

_Calvin Establishes the Genevan System_.--John Calvin was driven out of
France on account of his preaching. He went to Geneva and there
perfected a unique system of religious organization. Perhaps it is the
most complete system of applied theology developed by any of the
reformers. While it did not strongly unite the church and the state on
the same foundation of government, it placed them in such a close unity
that the religious power would be felt in every department of state
life. The Genevan system was well received in France, became the
foundation of the reform party there, and subsequently extended its
influence to Scotland, and, finally, to England. It became the
foundation of Presbyterianism throughout the world. While Calvinism
was severe and arbitrary in its doctrine, on account of its system of
administration, it greatly advanced civil liberty and gave a strong
impulse toward democracy. It was the central force in the Commonwealth
of England, and upheld the representative system of government, which
led to the establishment of constitutional liberty.

_The Reformation in England Differe