nations as well as to
individuals. In past ages she was a country ever aggressive upon her
neighbors, and it was not until she was sadly torn and weakened by
internal dissensions that Catharine II. first invaded her territory.
Nine-tenths of the populace were no better than slaves, in much the
same condition as the Russian serfs before the late emancipation took
place. They were acknowledged retainers, owing their service to, and
holding their farms at the option of the upper class; namely, the
so-called nobility of the country. This overmastering class prided
itself on the fact of neither promoting nor being engaged in any kind of
business; indeed, this uselessness was one condition attached to its
patent of nobility. These autocratic rulers knew no other interest or
occupation than that of the sword. War and devastation constituted their
profession, while the common people for ages reaped the fruit of famine
and slaughter. Even in what were called times of peace, the court and
nobles were constantly engaged in intrigues and quarrels. However hard
these reflections may seem, they are substantiated by historical facts,
and are frankly admitted by the intelligent citizens of Warsaw to-day.

That there is shameful despotism exercised by the present ruling powers
all must allow; but that peace, individual liberty, and great commercial
prosperity now reign in Poland is equally obvious. In the days which are
popularly denominated those of Polish independence the nobility were
always divided into bitter factions. Revolutions were as frequent as
they are to-day in South America or Mexico, and the strongest party
disposed of the crown, ruling amid tumult and bloodshed.

CHAPTER XXI.

From Warsaw we turn towards Munich, the capital of Bavaria, reaching the
quaint old city by way of Vienna, a description of which we have given
in a previous chapter. Munich has a population of about two hundred
thousand, and it possesses many noble institutions devoted to
charitable, literary, and art purposes. The accumulation of art
treasures is of the choicest character, not exceeded in number or
importance by any other city of Germany, if we except Dresden. Many of
its churches, centuries in age, are of great interest. Nearly all of our
modern bronze statues have been cast in the famous founderies of Munich.
The university, in the University Platz, takes first rank among the
educational institutions of the old world. The English Gard