m." These stipulations are in due
treaty form. The next early English treaties are:--with Flanders, 1274
and 1314; Portugal, 1308, 1352 and 1386; Baltic Cities, 1319 and 1388;
Biscay and Castile, 1351; Burgundy, 1417 and 1496; France, 1471, 1497
and 1510; Florence, 1490. The commercial treaty policy in England was
carried out systematically under Henry IV. and Henry VII. It was
continued under James I. to extend to Scotland English trading
privileges. The results attained in the 17th century were--regularity in
treaty arrangements; their durable instead of personal nature; the
conversion of permissive into perfect rights; questions as to contraband
and neutral trade stated in definite terms. Treaties were at first
limited to exclusive and distinct engagements between the contracting
states; each treaty differing more or less in its terms from other
similar compacts. Afterwards by extending to a third nation privileges
granted to particular countries, the _most favoured nation article_
began to be framed, as a unilateral engagement by a particular state.
The Turkish capitulations afford the earliest instances; and the treaty
of 1641 between the Netherlands and Portugal contains the first European
formula. Cromwell continued the commercial treaty policy partly in order
to obtain a formal recognition of the commonwealth from foreign powers.
His treaty of 1654 with Sweden contains the first reciprocal "most
favoured nation clause":--Article IV. provides that the people, subjects
and inhabitants of either confederate "shall have and possess in the
countries, lands, dominions and kingdoms of the other as full and ample
privileges, and as many exemptions, immunities and liberties, as any
foreigner doth or shall possess in the dominions and kingdoms of the
said confederate." The government of the Restoration replaced and
enlarged the Protectorate arrangements by fresh agreements. The general
policy of the commonwealth was maintained, with further provisions on
behalf of colonial trade. In the new treaty of 1661 with Sweden the
privileges secured were those which "any foreigner whatsoever doth or
shall enjoy in the said dominions and kingdoms on both sides."

In contemporary treaties France obtained from Spain (1659) that French
subjects should enjoy the same liberties as had been granted to the
English; and England obtained from Denmark (1661) that the English
should not pay more or greater customs than the people of the United