lemagne in
796, the Brabant Charter of 1305, and the Russian ukase of 1569.
Medieval treaties of truce or peace often contained a clause permitting
in general terms the renewal of personal and commercial communication as
it subsisted before the war. This custom is still followed. But these
medieval arrangements were precarious: they were often of temporary
duration, and were usually only effective during the lifetime of the
contracting sovereigns.

Passing over trade agreements affecting the Eastern empire, the modern
commercial treaty system came into existence in the 12th century. Genoa,
Pisa and Venice were then well-organized communities, and were in keen
rivalry. Whenever their position in a foreign country was strong, a
trading centre was established, and few or no specific engagements were
made on their part. But in serious competition or difficulty another
course was adopted: a formal agreement was concluded for the better
security of their commerce and navigation. The arrangements of 1140
between Venice and Sicily; the Genoese conventions of 1149 with
Valencia, of 1161 with Morocco, and of 1181 with the Balearic Islands;
the Pisan conventions of 1173 with Sultan Saladin, and of 1184 with the
Balearic Islands, were the earliest Western commercial treaties. Such
definite arrangements, although still of a personal character, were soon
perceived to be preferable to general provisions in a treaty of truce or
peace. They afforded also greater security than privileges enjoyed under
usage; or under grants of various kinds, whether local or royal. The
policy thus inaugurated was adopted gradually throughout Europe. The
first treaties relative to the trade of the Netherlands were between
Brabant and Holland in 1203, Holland and Utrecht in 1204, and Brabant
and Cologne in 1251. Early northern commercial treaties are those
between Riga and Smolensk 1229, and between Lubeck and Sweden 1269. The
first commercial relations between the Hanse Towns and foreign countries
were arrangements made by gilds of merchants, not by public authorities
as a governing body. For a long period the treaty system did not
entirely supersede conditions of intercourse between nations dependent
on permission.

The earliest English commercial treaty is that with Norway in 1217. It
provides "ut mercatores et homines qui sunt de potestate vestra libere
et sine impedimento terram nostram adire possint, et homines et
mercatores nostri similiter vestra