ned about as if disgusted with the
injustice of the man and made straight for his stall.--It is clear that
in the cases described we are not dealing with accidentally correct
responses, for in nearly every case the test was repeated a number of
times and the same responses were received each time. As a matter of
fact, my own introspection convinced me that the third and fourth cases
were surely, and the first and sixth were very probably, due to
insufficient concentration on the part of the questioner. Accordingly
there is everywhere in these cases a difference of +1 or +2 between the
number thought of and the number tapped (see page 92 f.). The data in
the second and fifth and still more in the seventh case were too meager
to warrant an attempt at explanation, for it is not even known whether
Hans responded with more or fewer taps than was expected by the
questioner. It is unfortunate that a more complete record was not made.

The frequent and intentional attempts of Mr. von Osten to induce the
horse to give an incorrect response,--which, by-the-way, were regularly
unsuccessful--belong only apparently to this group. Thus he asked, e.
g., "2 times 2 is 5, is it not?" "3 times 3 is 8?", etc., but Hans
refused to be misled, and responded correctly. This was from the very
beginning one of the main arguments for independent thinking on the part
of the horse. The actual procedure was as follows, even though the
questioner had said "2 times 2 is 5", there still was present in his
consciousness the number 4. I, myself, would think either of the first
member of the equation, i. e., 2 times 2, in which case Hans would
respond with 4 taps or I would have in mind the second member, i. e., 5,
in which case he would respond with 5 taps. Never did I succeed in
thinking of both at the same time. The association between the thought
"2 times 2" and the concept "4" is so close and supported by so many
other associations that the attempt to form a new one, that is at
complete variance with all these, is futile. One may say "2 times 2
equals 5" but it is impossible to conceive it.

Let us turn now, from the tests in counting and computation to those in
reading. We have seen that Hans manifested his seeming knowledge of
language symbols in a threefold manner: he might approach a slate on
which was written the symbol asked for, or he would indicate its
location in a series of slates by means of tapping, or finally by means
of so-called spel