eneral wages. Sec. 12. Competitive aspect of
organization and particular wages. Sec. 13. Monopolistic aspect of
organization and particular wages. Sec. 14. Open vs. closed shop. Sec.15.
Political and economic considerations. Sec.16. The public's view of unions.
Sec. 17. Future role of organization.

Sec. 1. #Changing relations between employers and wage-workers.# The
"organization of labor," or the "labor movement," so striking a
feature of the world to-day, is of comparatively recent origin. It did
not begin and advance _pari passu_ with the beginning and early growth
of the wage-system as above briefly described.[1] In anything like
its modern form the labor movement dates from the early years of the
eighteenth century. Much of the largest part of its history in all
countries, excepting England, is after 1860. Why was organization
among the workers so long delayed after wage-payment became common,
and why when it once appeared did it spread so rapidly in some
directions, and why is it still limited in the main to certain fields
of industry? These three questions are but one question in three forms
and to answer one fully would be to answer all.

The modern trade union appeared in England shortly before the
industrial revolution,[2] and has extended as fast and as far as
the same stage of industrial development has been attained in other
countries. The effort of wage workers to organize themselves appears
everywhere to result from the separation of the economic and personal
interests of employers and workmen. As the control of industry became
more concentrated in larger units with the advent of power machinery,
the feeling of economic unity among the different ranks of industry
was further weakened. The average workman had less opportunity of
becoming a master, an employer. In the days of the old hand industry,
master, journeyman, and apprentice worked side by side at the same
bench. Almost every apprentice might hope to become some time a
master, and many a one did so. To-day most wage-workers in large
establishments have no hope of rising out of their positions. The mere
largeness of an establishment forbids also the personal acquaintance
of employer and workman. As a result of these changes, the workmen
become more "class-conscious" of their position as wage-workers and
the employers in many establishments take the attitude of buyers of
labor as a mere ware. When the employer then feels the pressure
of c