f identity of essence, whereas Nyaya held that neither the
relations of cause and effect, nor that of essential identity of
genus and species, exhausted the field of inference, and there was
quite a number of other types of inference which could not be
brought under either of them (e.g. the rise of the moon and the
tide of the ocean). A natural fixed order that certain things happening
other things would happen could certainly exist, even
without the supposition of an identity of essence.

But sometimes it happens that different kinds of causes often
have the same kind of effect, and in such cases it is difficult to

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[Footnote 1: See _Tatparya@tika_ on anumana and vyaptigraha.]

[Footnote 2: _Tatparya@tika_ on vyaptigraha, and _Tattvacintama@ni_ of
Ga@nges'a on vyaptigraha.]

348

infer the particular cause from the effect. Nyaya holds however
that though different causes are often found to produce
the same effect, yet there must be some difference between one
effect and another. If each effect is taken by itself with its
other attendant circumstances and peculiarities, it will be found
that it may then be possible to distinguish it from similar other
effects. Thus a flood in the street may be due either to a heavy
downpour of rain immediately before, or to the rise in the water
of the river close by, but if observed carefully the flooding of
the street due to rain will be found to have such special traits
that it could be distinguished from a similar flooding due to the
rise of water in the river. Thus from the flooding of the street
of a special type, as demonstrated by its other attendant circumstances,
the special manner in which the water flows by small
rivulets or in sheets, will enable us to infer that the flood was
due to rains and not to the rise of water in the river. Thus we
see that Nyaya relied on empirical induction based on uniform
and uninterrupted agreement in nature, whereas the Buddhists
assumed _a priori_ principles of causality or identity of essence.
It may not be out of place here to mention that in later Nyaya
works great emphasis is laid on the necessity of getting ourselves
assured that there was no such upadhi (condition) associated with
the hetu on account of which the concomitance happened, but
that the hetu was unconditionally associated with the sadhya in
a relation of inseparable concomitance. Thus all fire does