forces, still Austria and not Great
Britain was the power whose diplomacy had most effect on the course of
events. The upheaval of Europe against Napoleon, however, would have
been much less effective if it had not been supported by English
subsidies, and Austria, in the crippled state of her finances, would
probably have had to remain inactive if she had not been able to rely on
English gold and perhaps still more on English credit.

The campaign of 1813 falls naturally into three parts. During the first,
from the beginning of January to the latter part of April the victorious
Russians swept over North Germany, and, carrying the Prussian monarchy
with them, strengthened a reaction which had already begun against the
rule of Napoleon. The second part began with the arrival of Napoleon on
the scene of action towards the end of April and lasted to the
conclusion of an armistice on June 4. In this period of seven or eight
weeks the allies were forced to retire at all points and the war was
carried into Prussian territory. The armistice, which terminated on
August 10, preceded the opening of the third part of the campaign in
which Russia and Prussia were joined by Austria and Sweden, and, after
gradually drawing closer round the main French position in Saxony,
finally inflicted a crushing defeat upon Napoleon at Leipzig in the
middle of October. The campaign was virtually over when Napoleon secured
his retreat by the victory of Hanau on October 30; but it is impossible
to sever it from the events outside Germany which were directly
occasioned by the downfall of Napoleon's German domination. These are
the revolt of Holland in November, that of Switzerland in December, and
the Austrian attack on Northern Italy in October and November.

In the opening months of the campaign the movements were merely a sequel
to those of the previous year. The French retreat was continued from the
Niemen to the Vistula, the Elbe, and finally the Saale. The Russians
entered Prussia proper a few days after Yorck's capitulation, and the
French retired before them. Stein, the Prussian statesman who had
received a commission from Russia to administer the Prussian districts
occupied by her, ordered the provincial governor to convoke an assembly.
Although some indignation was felt at such a step being taken by Russian
orders, the assembly met and voted the formation of the Landwehr. In
this way Prussia actually began to arm against France, while the