are local calls within them, a more rapid system of
toll charging than that just described is of advantage. In these
conditions, patrons are not sold a service which allows a particular
party to be named and found, nor is the identity of the calling person
required. The operator needs to know merely of these calls that they
originate at a certain telephone and are for a certain other. The facts
she must record are fewer and her work is simpler. Therefore, the cost
of such switching is less than for true long-distance calls and it can
be learned by careful auditing just when traffic between points becomes
great enough to warrant switching them in this way. Such switching, for
example, exists between New York and Brooklyn, between Chicago and
suburbs around it which have names of their own but really are part of
the community of Chicago, and between San Francisco and other cities
which cluster around San Francisco Bay.

Calls of the "long-haul" class are known as "particular person" or
"particular party" calls, while "short-haul" calls are known as
"two-number" long-distance calls. It is customary to handle particular
party calls on long-distance switchboards and to handle two-number calls
in manual systems on subscribers' switchboards exactly like local calls,
except that the two-number calls are ticketed. It is customary in
automatic systems to handle two-number calls by means of the regular
automatic equipment plus ticketing by a suburban or two-number operator.

_Timing Toll Connections._ It formerly was customary to measure the time
of long-distance conversations by noting on the ticket the time of its
beginning and the time of its ending, the operator reading the time from
a clock. For human and physical reasons, such timing seems not to be
considered infallible by the patron who pays the charge, and in cases of
dispute concerning overtime charges so timed, telephone companies find
it wisest to make concessions. The physical cause of error in reading
time from a clock is that of parallax; that is, the error which arises
from the fact that the minute hand of a clock is some distance from the
surface of the dial so that one can "look under it." On an ordinary
clock having a large face and its minute hand pointing upward or
downward, five people standing in a row could read five different times
from it at the same instant. The middle person might see the minute
hand pointing at 6, indicating the time to be half-past s