ussed, and
the Justice gave a formal written decision, containing the grounds
on which it was based. In criminal cases the amount of punishment was
always determined by reference to a special Criminal Code.

If the sum at issue exceeded thirty roubles--about 3 pounds--or if the
punishment exceeded a fine of fifteen roubles--about 30s.--or three days
of arrest, an appeal might be made to the Assembly of Justices (Mirovoi
Syezd). This is a point in which English rather than French institutions
were taken as a model. According to the French system, all appeals from
a Juge de Paix are made to the "Tribunal d'Arrondissement," and
the Justice of Peace Courts are thereby subordinated to the Regular
Tribunals. According to the English system, certain cases may be carried
on appeal from the Justice of the Peace to the Quarter Sessions. This
latter principle was adopted and greatly developed by the Russian
legislation. The Monthly Sessions, composed of all the Justices of
the District (uyezd), considered appeals against the decisions of the
individual Justices. The procedure was simple and informal, as in the
lower court, but an assistant of the Procureur was always present. This
functionary gave his opinion in some civil and in all criminal cases
immediately after the debate, and the Court took his opinion into
consideration in framing its judgment.

In the other great section of the judicial organisation--the Regular
Tribunals--there are likewise Ordinary Courts and Courts of Appeal,
called respectively "Tribunaux d'Arrondissement" (Okruzhniye Sudy)
and "Palais de Justice" (Sudebniya Palaty). Each Ordinary Court has
jurisdiction over several Districts (uyezdy), and the jurisdiction of
each Court of Appeals comprehends several Provinces. All civil cases are
subject to appeal, however small the sum at stake may be, but criminal
cases are decided FINALLY by the lower court with the aid of a jury.
Thus in criminal affairs the "Palais de Justice" is not at all a court
of appeal, but as no regular criminal prosecution can be raised without
its formal consent, it controls in some measure the action of the lower
courts.

As the general reader cannot be supposed to take an interest in the
details of civil procedure, I shall merely say on this subject that in
both sections of the Regular Tribunals the cases are always tried by
at least three judges, the sittings are public, and oral debates
by officially recognised advocates form an i