strom of drastic expansion. But rapid,
coercive social transformation produces neither stability nor security.
Its normal consequence is chaos, conflict and further change. In the
course of these internal conflicts the Roman Republic was gradually
phased out. In theory it persisted until the establishment of the
military dictatorship of Julius Caesar. Practically, while many of its
forms remained, the conduct of public affairs passed more and more into
the hands of political leaders who were able to command the backing of
the legions.

When the first war against Carthage was launched in 265 B.C., Carthage
was at the height of her power. Situated on the North African Coast
almost directly across the Mediterranean from Italy, the Carthaginians
were in effective control of the western Mediterranean. Carthage was
firmly entrenched in Spain. It was trading extensively with the British
Isles. Fleets of Carthaginian war ships patrolled the Mediterranean
guarding against piracy and economic or political interference by
rivals.

Roman political and business leaders, inexperienced in international
political dealings and the promotion of international trade, found their
further expansion to the west blocked by Carthaginian political,
economic and military installations. The result of the confrontation was
a series of three wars that began in 265 B.C., and ended in 146. During
these 119 years an established power, Carthage, struggled to preserve
its position against aggressive Roman efforts to take control of the
West Mediterranean basin. The Carthaginians, under the able generalship
of Hannibal, mobilized a military force (including elephants), marched
from Spain over the Alpine passes into Italy reaching the gates of Rome.
Romans countered with the slogan: "Carthage must be destroyed!" When the
third Punic war ended in 146 B.C., with the defeat of the Carthaginian
military forces, the city of Carthage was leveled.

The defeat of Carthage gave the Romans control of the western
Mediterranean. During the same period Roman interests were pushing into
East Europe and Western Asia. In 214 B.C., Philip of Macedon had made an
alliance with Hannibal, directed against Rome. Consequently, three wars
between Rome and Macedonia followed, the third ending in 168 B.C., with
the defeat of the Macedonians and their subordination to Roman authority
in the form of a Roman governor.

When opposition to Roman influence developed in Greece in 148