ept a rude state, dispensed justice, exacted tribute, waged war, and
contracted treaties.

The ruler of each clan was called a chief, who was really the chief man
of his family. Each clan was divided into branches who had chieftains
over them. The members of the clan claimed consanguinity to the chief.
The idea never entered into the mind of a Highlander that the chief was
anything more than the head of the clan. The relation he sustained was
subordinate to the will of the people. Sometimes his sway was unlimited,
but necessarily paternal. The tribesmen were strongly attached to the
person of their chief. He stood in the light of a protector, who must
defend them and right their wrongs. They rallied to his support, and in
defense they had a contempt for danger. The sway of the chief was of
such a nature as to cultivate an imperishable love of independence,
which was probably strengthened by an exceptional hardiness of
character.

The chief generally resided among his clansmen, and his castle was the
court where rewards were distributed and distinctions conferred. All
disputes were settled by his decision. They followed his standard in
war, attended him in the chase, supplied his table and harvested the
products of his fields. His nearest kinsmen became sub-chiefs, or
chieftains, held their lands and properties from him, over which they
exercised a subordinate jurisdiction. These became counsellors and
assistants in all emergencies. One chief was distinguished from another
by having a greater number of attendants, and by the exercise of
general hospitality, kindness and condescension. At the castle everyone
was made welcome, and treated according to his station, with a degree of
courtesy and regard for his feelings. This courtesy not only raised the
clansman in his own estimation, but drew the ties closer that bound him
to his chief.

While the position of chief was hereditary, yet the heir was obliged in
honor to give a specimen of his valor, before he was assumed or declared
leader of his people. Usually he made an incursion upon some chief with
whom his clan had a feud. He gathered around him a retinue of young men
who were ambitious to signalize themselves. They were obliged to bring,
by open force, the cattle they found in the land they attacked, or else
die in the attempt. If successful the youthful chief was ever after
reputed valiant and worthy of the government. This custom being
reciprocally used among them,