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labour of one kind or another) into "productive" and "unproductive" by the same authority (book ii. c. 3) is also apposite both for purposes of political economy and practical guidance, though economists have found it difficult to define where "productive expenditure" ends and "unproductive expenditure" begins. Adam Smith includes in his enumeration of the "fixed capital" of a country "the acquired and useful abilities of all the inhabitants"; and in this sense expenditure on education, arts and sciences might be deemed expenditure of the most productive value, and yet be wanting in strict commercial account of the profit and loss. It must be admitted that there is a personal expenditure among all ranks of society, which, though not in any sense a capital expenditure, may become capital and receive a productive application, always to be preferred to the grossly unproductive form, in the interest both of the possessors and of the community. The subject in its details is full of controversies, and a discussion of it at any length would embrace the whole field of economics. The subject will be found fully dealt with in every important economic work, but the following may be specially consulted:--J.S. Mill, _Principles of Political Economy_; J.E. Cairns, _Some Leading Principles of Political Economy_; F.A. Walker, _Political Economy_; A. Marshall, _Principles of Economics_; E. Bohm v. Bawerk, _Capital and Interest_; K. Marx, _Capital_; J.B. Clark, _Capital and its Earnings_; see also the economic works of W.H. Mallock (_Critical Examination of Socialism_, 1908, &c.) for an insistence on the importance of "ability," or brain-work, as against much of modern socialist theorizing against "capitalism." CAPITAL PUNISHMENT. By this term is now meant the infliction of the penalty of death for crime under the sentence of some properly constituted authority, as distinguished from killing the offender as a matter of self-defence or private vengeance, or under the order of some self-constituted or irregular tribunal unknown to the law, such as that of the Vigilantes of California, or of lynch law (q.v.). In the early stages of society a man-slayer was killed by the "avenger of blood" on behalf of the family of the man killed, and not as representing the authority of the state (Pollock and Maitland, _Hist. Eng. Law_, ii. 447.) This mode of dealing with homicide survives in the vendetta of Corsica and of
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