a
leather tube, fitting it loosely. Cruppers for pack-saddles, adapted to
very mountainous countries, like those used in Norway, can readily be
made by travellers. Instead of employing a ring to enclose the tail of
the beast (which is sure to fret its sides), he should pass a curved bar
of wood, a foot long, underneath the tail, and tie a cord to the
pack-saddle, from either end of the bar.

Girths.--A roll of spare webbing should be taken to patch up torn girths;
but a good substitute for a girth is made by cutting a band of tanned, or
even of dressed, leather, to within four inches of its end, into seven or
nine bands, and plaiting these together. But it takes a beginner just ten
times as long to plait a girth as to weave it, and, therefore, for making
more than one girth, it is well worth while to set up a rude loom. Do
this as though you were making a mat. (See "Mat.") Girths need not be
buckled; they may be laced.

Stirrups must be very roomy, enough to admit clumsily-shaped shoes, such
as are made in the bush; they must be broad under the sole of the foot,
and also at the place which rubs against the little toe. Unless they are
heavy, it is not easy to find them with the foot; travellers in South
Africa cut them out from any thick raw hide--that of giraffe,
rhinoceros, or sea-cow does admirably. A wooden stirrup may be cut or
burnt out of a block. It should have lead melted into it to give it
sufficient weight. A stick and a thong, as shown in the figure, is a poor
makeshift. Willow, or any other lithe wood, is easily bent into the
required shape, especially if its outer edge be nicked with a knife;
otherwise it would be a mere loop of wood, such as it represented in the
next figure but two, in the paragraph on Rings.

[Sketch of foot and stirrup].

Bridles and Bits.--Leave behind all English notions of snaffles and
double reins, and ride with nothing but an easy curb. The horse must also
carry a headstall and a halter; I like one with plenty of tassels, to
keep off the flies. A temporary substitute for a curb is made by noosing
a string, and putting the noose round the horse's lower jaw. If the
string be long enough, it can be doubled back again, and tied to the
other side of the noose, so as to make a complete bridle. The groom's
fashion of giving the halter a hitch, and putting it round the jaw, is
well known.

Buckles.--A contrivance like this will often be found useful to replace a
buckle and strap; by