all religious
matters and, consequently, through religious influences, had large
control in affairs pertaining to household government, and to social
and political life in general. The duties and powers of these chiefs
were carefully defined. The communal houses in which the people lived
were divided into apartments for different clans and families. In some
instances there was a common dining-hall for the members of the tribe.
The men usually resided outside of the communal house, but came to the
common dining-hall for their meals.

There were many secret societies among these people which seemed to
mingle religious and political sentiments. The members of these
societies dwelt to a large extent in the Estufa, or Kiva, a large
half-subterranean club-house where they could meet in secret. In every
large tribe there were four to seven of these secret orders, and they
were recognized as representing the various organizations. These "cult
societies," so called by Mr. Powell, had charge of the mythical rites,
the spirit lore, the mysteries, and the medicines of the part of the
tribe which they represented. They conducted the ceremonies at all
festivals and celebrations. It is difficult to determine the exact
nature of their religion. It was a worship full of superstition,
recognizing totemism and direct connection with the spirits of nature.
Their religion was of a joyous nature, and always was associated with
their games and feasts. The games were usually given in the
celebration of some great event, or for some economic purpose, and were
accompanied with dancing, music, pantomime, and symbolism. Perhaps of
all of the North American Indians, the Pueblos showed the greatest
fondness for music and had made some advancement in the arts of poetry
and song. The noted snake dance, the green-corn dance, and the cachina
all had at foundation an economic purpose. They were done ostensibly
to gain the favor of the gods of nature.

{197}

When discovered by the Spaniards, the Pueblos had made good beginnings
in agriculture and the industrial arts, were living in a state of peace
and apparently contented, there seeming to be little war between the
tribes. Their political organization in connection with the secret
societies and their shamanistic religion gave them a good development
of social order. After nearly 400 years of Spanish and American rule,
they appear to have retained many of their original traits and
char